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Professor Emeritus
of Medical Psychology

 

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PCI: the Pain Coping Inventory/ De pijncoping inventarisatielijst

The PCI consists of six scales (33 items) measuring cognitive and behavioral pain-coping strategies that represent two higher order, active, and passive pain coping dimensions. Items are rated according to a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (hardly ever) to 4 (very often) in terms of frequency with which strategies are applied when dealing with pain. Active pain coping strategies reflect three cognitive-behavioral strategies, measuring patient’s efforts to distract themselves from pain (distraction, five items), to reinterpret and transform the pain (pain transformation, four items) and to function in spite of pain (reducing demands, three items). Passive pain coping reflects three cognitive-behavioral strategies, assessing behavioral tendencies to restrict functioning (resting, five items), to avoid environmental stimuli (retreating, seven items) and catastrophic cognitions about the pain (worrying, nine items).
A composite score of the active and passive coping dimensions can be calculated by summing up the non-weighted scores of the three active and passive coping strategies. The PCI scales are sensitive to identify differences between pain diagnostic groups in their use of pain-coping strategies. Confirmatory construct and criterion validity of the scales and the second-order structure with respect to active and passive pain-coping strategies were supported (Kraaimaat et al., 1997; Kraaimaat et al., 2003). In addition, the psychometric qualities of the French version of the PCI were assessed by Perrot et a. (2008) and found to have good structural validity and highly suitable for analyzing active and passive pain coping strategies in patients with osteoarthritis. Use of the PCI is free for health professionals and researchers. At present the PCI is available in a Dutch [article in .pdf format], English [article in .pdf format] , German [article in .pdf format] , Turkish [article in .pdf format] , Portugese , Swedish[article in .pdf format] and French [article in pdf format] version respectively.

Publications

Kraaimaat, F.W., Bakker, A. & Evers, A.W.M. (1997). Pijncoping-strategieën bij chronische pijnpatiënten: De ontwikkeling van de Pijn Coping Inventarisatielijst (PCI). ( Pain coping strategies in chronic pain patients: the development of the Pain Coping Inventory (PCI). Gedragstherapie, 30, 3, 185-201. [article in .pdf format]

Kraaimaat, F.W. & Evers, A.W. (2003). Pain-Coping Strategies in Chronic Pain Patients: Psychometric Characteristics of the Pain-Coping Inventory (PCI). International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 4, 343-63. [article in .pdf format]

Perrot, S., Poiraudeau, S., Kabir, M., Bertin, P., Sichere, P., Serrie, A. & Rannou, F. (2008). Active and Passive Pain Coping Strategies in Hip and Knee Osteoarthritis? Results of an National Survey of 4,719 Patients in a Primary Care Setting. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 59, 11, 1555-1562[article in pdf format].

Oliveira, P. & Costa, M.E. (2012). Validity and reliability of the portuguese version of the Pain Coping Inventory. Acta Reumatology Portugese, 37, 2, 126-133.

Publications with the PCI as a measurement of pain coping behaviour

Kraaimaat, F.W., Brons, M.R., Geenen, R. & Bijlsma, J.W.J. (1995) The effects of cognitive behavior therapy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 5, 487-495.

Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat, F.W., Geenen, R., & Bijlsma, J.W.J. (1998). Psychosocial predictors of functional change in recently diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 179-193.

Hopman-Rock, M., Kraaimaat, F.W., Odding, E., & Bijlsma, J.W.J. (1998). Coping with Pain in the Hip or Knee in Relation to Physical Disability in Community-Living Elderly People. Arthritis Care and Research, 11 (4), 243-252.

Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat, F.W., Geenen, R., Jacobs, J.W.G., Bijlsma, J.W.J. (2003). Pain coping and social support as predictors of long-term functional disability and pain in early rheumatoid arthritis. Behavior and Research Therapy, 41, 1295-1310.[article in pdf format]

Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat, F.W., Riel, P.L.C.M.van & Bijlsma, J.W.J. (2001). Cognitive, behavioral and physiological reactivity to pain as a predictor of long-term pain in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Pain, 93, 139-146.

Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat F.W., Riel, P.L.C.M. van & Jong, A.J.L. de (2002). Tailored cognitive-behavioral therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis for patients at risk: a randomized controlled trial. Pain, 100, 141-153.

Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat, F.W., Geenen, R., Jacobs, J.W.G. & Bijlsma, J.W.J. (2003). Pain coping and social support as predictors of long-term functional disability and pain in early rheumatoid arthritis. Behaviour and Research Therapy, 41, 1295-1310.

Bot, S.D.M., Waal, J.M. van der, Terwee, C.B., Windt, D.A.W.M. van der, Bouter, L.M. & Dekker, J. (2005). Course and prognosis of elbow complaints: a cohort study in general practice. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 64, 9, 1331-1336.

Bekkering, G.E., Hendriks, H.J.M., Tulder, M.W. van, Knol, D.L., Simmonds, M.J., Oostendorp, R.A.B. & Bouter, L. (2005). Prognostic factors of low back pain in patients referred for physiotherapy: Comparing outcomes and varying modeling techniques. Spine, 30, 16, 1881-1886.

Waal, J.M. van der, Bot, S.D.M., Terwee, C.B., Windt, D.A.W.M. van der, Scholten, R.J.P.M., Bouter, L. & Dekker, J. (2005). Course and prognosis of knee complaints in general practice. Arthritis Care & Research, 53, 6, 920-930.

Waal, J.M. van der, Terwee, C.B. et al. (2005). Predictors of outcome in neck and shoulders symptoms. Spine, 30 (16): E459-70.

Verhoeven, L., Kraaimaat, F., Duller, P., Kerkhof, P.v.d. & Evers, A.W.M. (2006). Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological reactivity to chronic itching: analogies to pain. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13, 237-243.

Waal, J.M. van der, Bot, S.D.M., Terwee, C.B., Windt, D.A.W.M. van der, Bouter, L. & Dekker, J. (2006). The course and prognosis of hip complaints in general practice. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 3, 297-308.

Boer, J.J. den, Oostendorp, R.A.B., Beems, T., Munneke, M. & Evers, A.W.M. (2006). Continued disability and pain after lumbar disc surgery: The role of cognitive-behavioral factors. Pain, 123, 45-52.

Samwel, H.J.A., Evers, A.W.M., Kraaimaat, F.W. & Crul, B.J.P. (2006). The role of helplessness, fear of pain and pain-coping in chronic pain patients. Clinical Journal of Pain, 22, 245-251.

Boer, J.J. den, Oostendorp, R.A.B., Beems, T., Munneke, M. & Evers, A.W.M. (2006). Reduces work capacity after lumbar disc surgery: The role of cognitive-behavioral and work-related risk factors. Pain, 126, 72-78.

Heneweer, H., Aufdemkampe, G., Tulder, M.W. van, Kiers, H., Stappaerts, K.H. & Vanhees, L. (2007). Psychosocial variables in patients with (sub)acute low back pain.: An inception cohort in primary care physical therapy in the Netherlands. Spine, 32, 5, 586-592.

Oosterhof, J., Samwel, H., Boo, T. de, Wilder-Smith, O.H.G., Oosterdorp, R.A.B. & Crul, B.J.P. (2008). Predicting outcome of Tens in chronic pain: a prospective, randomized placebo controlled trial. Pain, 136, 11-20.

Koulil, S. van, Lankveld, W van, Kraaimaat, F.W., Helmond, T van, Vedder, A., Hoorn, H. van, Cats, H., Riel, P.L.C.M., van & Evers, A.W.M. (2008). Tailored cognitive-behavioral therapy for fibromyalgia: Two case-studies. Patient Education and Counseling, 71, 308-314.

Samwel, H.J.A., Kraaimaat, F.W., Crul, B.J.P. & Evers, A.W.M. (2007). The role of fear avoidance factors and helplessness for functional disability in chronic pain: A prospective study. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 14, 237-241.

Koulil, S. van, Boer , J.J. den, Samwel, H.J., Pothof, E., Riel, P.L.C.M. van & Evers, A.W.M. (2008). Van pijnvermijding naar pijnpersistentie: screening en cognitieve gedragstherapie op maat bij chronische pijn [From pain avoidance to pain persistence: Screening and tailored cognitive behavior therapy in chronic pain]. Gedragstherapie, Special Issue Medical Psychology, 41, 15-26.

Koulil, S. van, Kraaimaat, F.W., Lankveld, W. van, Helmond, T. van, Vedder, Hoorn A. van, Cats, H., Riel, P.L.C. M. van & Evers, A.W.M. (2008). Screening for Pain-Persistence and Pain-Avoidance Patterns in Fibromyalgia. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 211-220.

Roer, N. van der, Tulder, M. van, Barendse, K., Knol, D., Mechelen, W. van & Vet, H. de (2008). Intensive group training protocol versus guideline physiotherapy for patients with chronic low back pain: a randomised controlled trial. European Spine Journal, 17, 1193-1200. [article in pdf format]

Grimmer-Somers, K., Vipond, N., Kumar, S. & Hall, G. (2009). A review and critique of assessment instruments for patients with persistent pain. Journal of Pain Research, 2, 21-47. [article in pdf format]

Olieveira, P. & Costa, M.E. (2009). Interrelationship of adult attachment orientations, health status and worrying among fibromyalgia patients. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 1184-1195.

Samwel, H.J.A., Kraaimaat, F.W., Crul, B.J.P., Dongen, R.D. van & Evers, A.W.M. (2009). Multidisciplinairy allocation of chronic pain treatment: effects and cognitive-behavioral predictors of outcome. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 405-421.

Samwel, H.J.A., Kraaimaat, F.W., Crul, B.J.P. & Evers, A.W.M. (2009). Multidisciplinairy allocation of pain treatment: Long-term outcome of cognitive-behavioral processes. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain, 17, 26-36.

Heneweer, H., Woudenberg, N.J. van, Genderen, F. van, VanHees, L. & Wittink, H. (2010). Measuring psychological variables in patients with (sub)acute low back pain complaints at risk for chronicity. Spine, 35, 447-452. [article in pdf format]

Holla, J.F.M., Steuljes, M.P.M., Roorda, L.D., Heymans, M.W., Wolde, S, Ten & Dekker, J. (2010). Prognostic factors for the two-year course of activity limitations in early osteoarthritis of the hip and/or knee. Arthritis Care & Research, 62, 1415-1425.

Koulil, S. van, Lankveld, W. van, Kraaimaat, F.W., Riel, P.L.C.M. van & Evers, A.W.M. (2010). Risk factors for longer-term psychological distress in well-functioning fibromyalgia patients: A prospective study into prognostic factors. Patient Education and Counseling, 80, 126-129.

Koulil, S. van, Kraaimaat, F.W., Lankveld, W. van, Helmond, T. van, Vedder, A., Hoorn, A. van, Donders, A.T., Thieme, K., Cats, H.A., Riel, P.L.C.M. van & Evers, A.W.M. (2011). Cognitive behavioral mechanisms in pain-avoidance and a pain-persistence treatment for high-risk fibromyalgia patients. Arthritis Care and Research, 63, 800-807.

Holla, J.F.M., Leeden, M. van der, Knol, D.l., Peter, W.F.H., Ruurda, L.D., Lems, W.F., Wesseling, J., Steultjens, M.P. & Dekker, J. (2012). Avoidance of activities in early symptomatic kneeosteoarthritis: Results from the CHECK cohort. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44, 33-42.

Meeus, M., Nijs, J., Mul, E. van, Truijen, S. & De Meirleir, K. (2012). Role of psychological aspects in both chronic pain and in daily functioning in chronic fatigue syndrome: a prospective longitudinal study. Clinical Rheumatology, 31, 921-929.

Bossen, D., Veenhof, C., Beek, K.E.C. van, Spreeuwemberg, P.M., Dekker, J. & Bakker, D.H. (2013). Effectiveness of a web-based physical activity intervention in patients with kwee and/or hip osteoarthritis:
Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Internet Research, 22, 15(11):e257.

Marinus, J., Perez, R., Eijs, F. van, Gestel, M.A. et al. (2013). The role of pain coping and kinesiophobia in patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1 of the legs. Clinical Journal of Pain, 29, 7, 563-569.

Heutink, M., Post, M.W.M., Overdulve, C.W., Phennings, L.E.M.A., Vis, W. van de, Vrijens,  N.L.H. & Lindeman, E. (2013). Which pain coping strategies and cognitions are associated with outcomes of a cognitive behavioral intervention for neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 19, 4, 330-340.

Stukstette, M.J., Dekker, J., Broeder, A.A. den, Westeneng, J.M. , Bijlsma, J.W., Ende, C.W. van den. (2013). No evidence for the effectiveness of a multidisciplinary group based treatment program in patients with osteoarthritis of hands on the short term: results of a randomized controlled trial. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 21, 7, 901-910.

Smink, A.J., Dekker, J., Vliet Vlieland, Th.P.M., Swierstra, B., Kortland, J.H., Bijlsma, J.W.J., Teerenstra, S., Voorn, T., Bierma-Zeinstra, S.M.A., Schers, H.J. & Ende, C.H.M. van den. (2013). Health care use of patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee after implementation of a stepped care strategy: an observational study. Arthritis Care & Research, doi: 10.1002/acr.22222.

Pisters, M.F., Veenhog, C. van, Dijk, G.M. & Dekker, J. (2014). Avoidance of activity and limitations in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee: a 5 year follow-up study on the mediating role of reduced muscle strength. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 22,2, 171-177.

Holla, J.F., Leeden, M. van der, Roorda, L.D., Hilberdink, W.K., Lems, W.F., Steultjes, M.P. & Dekker, J. (2014). Risk factors and outcome of pain-related avoidance of activities in persons with early symptomatic knee osteoarthritis: A 5-year follow-up study. Arthritis Care & Research, doi 10.1002/acr.22381.

Holla, J.F., Leeden, M. van der, Heymans, M.W., Roorda, L.D., Bierma-Zeinstra, S.M.A., Boers, M., Lems, W.F., Steultjes, M.P. & Dekker, J. (2014). Three trajectories of activity limitations in early symptomatic knee ostreoarthritis: a 5-year follow-up study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 73, 1369-1375.

Holla, J.F.M., Leeden, M. van der, Knol, D.L., Roorda, L.D., Hilberdink, W.K.H.A., Lems, W.F., Steultjens, M.P.M. & Dekker, J. (2015). Predictors and outcome of pain related avoidance of activities in persons with early symptomatic knee osteoarthritis: A five-year followup study. Arthritis Care and Research, 67, 1, 48-57.

Malflier, A., Van Oosterwijck, J., Meus, M., Cagnie, B., Danneels, L., Dolphens, M., Buyl, R., Nijs, J. (2017).
Kinesiophobua and maladaptive coping strategies prevent improvements in pain catastrophizing following pain neuroscience education in fibromyalgia/chronic fatique syndrome: An explorative study. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 33, 8, 1-8.

Outi, E.I., Hermsen, L.A.H., Van der Wouden, J.C., Holla, J.F.M., Van der Leeden, M. et al. (2018). Are changes in pain, cognitive appraisals and coping strategies associated with changes in physical functioning in older adults with joint pain and chronic diseases? Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-018-0978-x

Oostendorp, R., Elvers, J.W.H., Triffel, E. van, Rutten, G.M., Scholten-Peeters, G.G.M., Heijmans, M., Hendris, E., Milcolajewska, E., De Kooning, M. Laekeman, M., Nijs, J., Roussel, N., Samwel,H. (2020). Relationships between context, process, and outcome indicators to assess quality of physiotherapy care in patients with whiplash-associated disorders: applying Donabidian's model of care. Patient Preference and Adherence, 14, 425-442.

Rosmalen, J.G.M., Gils, A. van, Acevedo Mesa, A., Schoevers, R.A., Monden, R.,Hanssen, D.J.C. (2020). Development of grip self-help: An onlone patient-tailored self-help intervention for functional somatic symptoms in primary care. Internet Interventions.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2019.100297.




 
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